Nanocarbons for Advanced Energy Storage, Volume 1

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Marc Notes: This first volume in the series on nanocarbons for advanced applications presents the latest achievements in the design, synthesis, characterization, and applications of these materials for electrochemical energy storage. Table of Contents: Preface XIII List of Contributors XV 1 Nanostructured Activated Carbons for Supercapacitors 1"Wentian Gu, XinranWang, and Gleb Yushin" 1.1 Supercapacitors 1 1.2 Activated Carbon as Electrode for Supercapacitors 3 1.3 Synthesis of ACs 4 1.3.1 Precursors 4 1.3.2 Activation Method 11 1.4 Various Forms of ACs as Supercapacitor Electrodes 13 1.4.1 Activated Carbon Powders 13 1.4.2 Activated Carbon Films and Monoliths 14 1.4.3 Activated Carbon Fibers 15 1.5 Key Factors Determining the Electrochemical Performance of AC-Based Supercapacitors 16 1.5.1 Pore Size and Pore Size Distribution 16 1.5.2 Pore Alignment 19 1.5.3 Surface Functionalization 20 1.5.4 Electrical Conductivity of the Electrode 21 1.5.5 Electrolyte Selection 22 1.5.6 Understandings of Ion Adsorption in Porous Structure 23 1.5.7 Quantum Capacitance of Carbon and Doping 26 1.6 Self-discharge of ACs-Based Supercapacitors 27 1.7 Summary 28 References 29 2 Nanocarbon Hybrids with Silicon, Sulfur, or Paper/Textile for High-Energy Lithium Ion Batteries 35"Nian Liu, Guangyuan Zheng, and Yi Cui" 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Nanocarbon/Silicon Hybrid Anodes 36 2.2.1 Nanocarbon@Silicon Structure 37 2.2.2 Silicon@Nanocarbon Structure 38 2.2.3 Silicon@Void@Nanocarbon Structure 40 2.2.4 Nanocarbon/Silicon Hierarchical Structure 41 2.3 Nanocarbon/Sulfur Hybrid Cathodes 42 2.3.1 0D Nanocarbon (Nanoporous Carbon) 44 2.3.2 1D Nanocarbon (Carbon Nanotubes and Nanofibers) 46 2.3.3 2D Nanocarbon (Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide) 47 2.3.4 3D Nanostructured Carbon 48 2.4 Nanocarbon/Paper/Textile Hybrids as Conductive Substrates 49 2.4.1 Carbon Nanotubes/Paper/Textile Hybrids 49 2.4.2 Graphene/Textile Hybrids 51 2.5 Conclusion and Perspective 52 References 52 3 Precursor-Controlled Synthesis of Nanocarbons for Lithium Ion Batteries 59"Shuling Shen, Xianglong Li, and Linjie Zhi" 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Precursor-Controlled Synthesis of Nanocarbons 60 3.3 Nanocarbons in LIBs 63 3.3.1 Pure Nanocarbons as Anode in LIBs 63 3.3.2 Nanocarbon Composites as Anode in LIBs 67 3.3.3 Nanocarbon in Cathode of LIBs 78 3.4 Summary and Outlook 79 References 80 4 Nanocarbon/Metal Oxide Hybrids for Lithium Ion Batteries 87"JiapingWang, Li Sun, YangWu, Mengya Li, Kaili Jiang, and Shoushan Fan" 4.1 Metal Oxides (MOs) for Lithium Ion Batteries 87 4.2 Carbon Nanocoating/MO Hybrids for LIBs 89 4.2.1 Manganese Oxides/Carbon Coating Hybrids 89 4.2.2 Iron Oxides/Carbon Coating Hybrids 91 4.2.3 Tin Oxides/Carbon Coating Hybrids 92 4.2.4 Other MOs/Carbon Coating Hybrids 92 4.3 CNFs/MO Hybrids and CNTs/MO Hybrids 93 4.3.1 CNFs/MO Hybrids 95 4.3.2 CNTs/MO Hybrids 96 4.4 Graphene/MO Hybrids 98 4.4.1 Cobalt Oxides/Graphene Hybrids 101 4.4.2 Iron Oxides/Graphene Hybrids 101 4.4.3 Manganese Oxides/Graphene Hybrids 103 4.4.4 Tin Oxides/Graphene Hybrids 104 4.4.5 Other MOs/Graphene Hybrids 105 4.5 Hierarchical Nanocarbon/MO Hybrids 106 4.5.1 Carbon Nanocoating/CNTs/MO Hybrids 106 4.5.2 Carbon Nanocoating/Graphene/MO Hybrids 107 4.5.3 CNFs/CNTs/Graphene/MO Hybrids 108 4.6 Summary and Perspectives 110 Acknowledgments 111 References 111 5 Graphene for Flexible Lithium-Ion Batteries: Development and Prospects 119"Lei Wen, Feng Li, Hong-Ze Luo, and Hui-Ming Cheng" 5.1 Introduction 119 5.1.1 Development of Flexible Electronic Devices 119 5.1.2 Principle of LIBs 122 5.1.3 Current Status of Flexible LIBs 124 5.2 Types of Flexible LIBs 127 5.2.1 Definition of Flexible LIBs 127 5.2.2 Design and Fabrication of Bendable LIBs 128 5.2.3 Design and Fabrication of Stretchable LIBs 131 5.3 Current Status of Graphene-Based Electrodes for Bendable LIBs 136 5.3.1 Fabrication of Graphene 138 5.3.2 Graphene/Non-conductive Flexible Substrates 140 5.3.3 Graphene Films 143 5.3.4 Self-Standing Graphene Composites 146 5.3.5 Graphene Fibers 149 5.4 Characterization of Graphene-Based Bendable Electrodes 155 5.4.1 Mechanical Properties of Flexible Electrodes 156 5.4.2 Mechanical Stability of Flexible Electrodes under Deformation 158 5.4.3 Static and Quasi-Dynamic Electrochemical Performance 159 5.4.4 Dynamic Electrochemical Performance 161 5.5 Prospects of Flexible LIBs 162 5.6 Summary and Perspective 169 Acknowledgment 169 References 169 6 Supercapatteries with Hybrids of Redox Active Polymers and Nanostructured Carbons 179"Anthony J. Stevenson, Denys G. Gromadskyi, Di Hu, Junghoon Chae, Li Guan, Linpo Yu, and George Z. Chen" 6.1 Introduction 179 6.2 Electrochemical Capacitance 180 6.3 Supercapattery 183 6.4 Carbon Nanotubes and Redox Active Polymers 185 6.5 Carbon Nanotube-Polymer Hybrids 188 6.5.1 Synthesis of CNT and RAPs Hybrids 188 6.5.2 Performance of CNT/RAP Hybrids 192 6.6 Electrode and Cell Fabrication 193 6.7 Electrolytes and Separator 196 6.7.1 Electrolytes 197 6.7.2 Separator 199 6.8 Recycling of Materials 199 6.9 Conclusion 203 Abbreviations 204 References 204 7 Carbon-Based Supercapacitors Produced by the Activation of Graphene 211"Ziqi Tan, Guanxiong Chen, and Yanwu Zhu" 7.1 Introduction 211 7.2 Supercapacitors Produced from activated graphene 215 7.2.1 Activated Graphene as Electrode Materials 215 7.2.2 Effects of Graphene Precursors before Activation 218 7.2.3 Optimization Based on Activated Graphene 220 7.3 Conclusion and Remarks 223 Acknowledgments 223 References 224 8 Supercapacitors Based on Graphene and Related Materials 227"Kothandam Gopalakrishnan, Achutharao Govindaraj, and C. N. R. Rao" 8.1 Introduction 227 8.2 Characteristics of Supercapacitors 228 8.3 Activated Carbons 228 8.4 Carbon Nanotubes 231 8.5 Graphene-Based Supercapacitors 233 8.6 Graphene Micro-Supercapacitors 236 8.7 Nitrogen-Doped Graphene 239 8.8 Boron-Doped Graphene 242 8.9 Graphene Pseudocapacitors 243 8.10 Graphene-Conducting Polymer Composites 243 8.11 Graphene-Transition Metal Oxide Composites 247 References 249 9 Self-Assembly of Graphene for Electrochemical Capacitors 253"Yiqing Sun and Gaoquan Shi" 9.1 Introduction 253 9.2 The Chemistry of Chemically Modified Graphene 254 9.3 The Self-Assembly of CMGs into 2D Films 255 9.3.1 Vacuum-Filtration-Induced Self-Assembly 256 9.3.2 Evaporation-Induced Self-Assembly 258 9.3.3 Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) Technique 259 9.3.4 Layer-by-Layer (LBL) Assembly 261 9.4 Self-Assembling CMG Sheets into 3D Architectures 263 9.4.1 Template-Free Self-Assembly 264 9.4.2 Template Guided Self-Assembly 268 9.4.3 Ice Segregation Induced Self-Assembly 270 9.5 Self-Assembled Graphene Materials for ECs 271 9.6 Conclusions and Perspectives 274 References 275 10 Carbon Nanotube-Based Thin Films for Flexible Supercapacitors 279"Zhiqiang Niu, Lili Liu, Weiya Zhou, Xiaodong Chen, and Sishen Xie" 10.1 Introduction 279 10.2 Solution-Processed CNT Films 281 10.3 Solution-Processed Composite CNT Films 285 10.4 Directly Synthesized SWCNT Films 289 10.5 The Composite Films Based on Directly Synthesized SWCNT Films 293 10.6 Conclusions and Outlook 295 References 296 11 Graphene and Porous Nanocarbon Materials for Supercapacitor Applications 301"Yanhong Lu and Yongsheng Chen" 11.1 Introduction 301 11.2 Construction and Classification of Supercapacitors 303 11.2.1 Electrical Double Layer Capacitors (EDLCs) 304 11.2.2 Pseudo-Supercapacitors (PSCs) 306 11.2.3 Asymmetrical Supercapacitors (ASCs) 308 11.2.4 Micro-supercapacitors (MSCs) 309 11.3 A Performance Study of EDLCs Based on Nanocarbon Materials 311 11.3.1 Specific Surface Area 312 11.3.2 Pore Size Distribution 313 11.4 Porous Nanocarbon Materials for Supercapacitors 315 11.4.1 Activated Carbons (ACs) 317 11.4.2 Templated Carbons 318 11.4.3 Carbide-Derived Carbons (CDCs) 320 11.4.4 Graphene-Based Materials 321 Summary 328 Acknowledgments 328 References 328 12 Aligned Carbon Nanotubes and Their Hybrids for Supercapacitors 339"Hao Sun, Xuemei Sun, Zhibin Yang, and Huisheng Peng" 12.1 Introduction 339 12.2 Synthesis of Aligned CNT Materials 339 12.3 Properties of Aligned CNT Materials 343 12.4 Planar Supercapacitors 344 12.5 Fiber-Shaped Supercapacitors 349 12.6 Summary and Outlook 356 References 357 13 Theoretic Insights into Porous Carbon-Based Supercapacitors 361"Nada Mehio, Sheng Dai, JianzhongWu, and De-en Jiang" 13.1 Introduction 361 13.2 Classical Density Functional Theory 362 13.3 Ionic Liquid-Based Electric Double-Layer Capacitors 363 13.3.1 Differential Capacitance at the Planar IL/Electrode Interface 365 13.3.2 Interfacial Layering of Ionic Liquids 366 13.3.3 Oscillation of Ionic Liquid EDLC Capacitance with Variations in Pore Size 368 13.4 Organic Electrolyte Based Electric Double-Layer Capacitors 371 13.4.1 Effects of Pore Size on Capacitance for Organic Electrolyte EDLCs 371 13.4.2 Effects of Solvent Polarity on Capacitance 373 13.5 Summary and Outlook 375 Acknowledgments 376 References 376 14 Nanocarbon-Based Materials for Asymmetric Supercapacitors 379Faxing Wang, Zheng Chang, Minxia Li, and Yuping Wu 14.1 Introduction 379 14.2 Activated Carbons for ASCs 382 14.2.1 Preparation Methods 382 14.2.2 Electrochemical Performance in Organic Electrolytes 383 14.2.3 Electrochemical Performance in Aqueous Electrolytes 385 14.3 Graphene for ASCs 389 14.3.1 Preparation Methods 389 14.3.2 Electrochemical Performance in Organic Electrolytes 390 14.3.3 Electrochemical Performance in Aqueous Electrolytes 390 14.4 Nanocarbon Composites for ASCs 392 14.4.1 Composites Based on AC 392 14.4.2 Composites Based on CNTs 395 14.4.3 Composites Based on Graphene 399 14.5 Other Carbon Materials and Their Composites for ACSs 403 14.5.1 Preparation Methods 403 14.5.2 Electrochemical Performance in Organic Electrolytes 405 14.5.3 Electrochemical Performance in Aqueous Electrolytes 406 14.6 All Solid State ASCs Based on Nanocarbon Materials 407 14.7 Summary and Prospects 409 Acknowledgments 410 References 410 15 Nanoporous Carbide-Derived Carbons as ElectrodeMaterials in Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitors 417"Martin Oschatz, Lars Borchardt, Guang-Ping Hao, and Stefan Kaskel" 15.1 Introduction 417 15.2 Synthesis and Materials 418 15.2.1 Historical Perspective 418 15.2.2 Mechanisms of CDC Synthesis 419 15.2.3 Pore Structure of CDCs 424 15.2.4 Hierarchical CDCs from Polymer Precursors 426 15.2.5 CDC Nanoparticles 430 15.3 Application of CDCs in EDLCs 431 15.3.1 Role of Electrolyte System 432 15.3.2 Role of Particle Size and Shape 433 15.3.3 Role of Mesopore Structure 434 15.3.4 Role of Device Design 436 15.4 Electrosorption Mechanisms in CDC-Based EDLCs 437 15.4.1 Ion Desolvation in CDC Micropores 438 15.4.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 438 15.4.3 Computational Modeling Studies 440 15.5 Conclusions and Outlook 442 Acknowledgments 443 References 443 Index 455Biographical Note: Xinliang Feng is a full professor at the Technische UniversitAt Dresden since 2014 and adjunct distinguished professor at the Shanghai Jiao Tong University since 2011 as well as Director for the Institute of Advanced Organic Materials. His current scientific interests include the graphene, two-dimensional nanomaterials, organic conjugated materials, and carbon-rich molecules and materials for electronic and energy-related applications.